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Bachelors’ club dinner parties were occasions for manongs to show off their girlfriends and dates. (Source: FANHS Stockton, Pangasinan Association of Los Angeles)
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The simple act of falling in love is
a right we take for granted today. Whom we love and how we love is no longer
questioned for the most part; nor is the race of the object of our affections a
major legal barrier. For the manong generation of 70 years ago, however, the
right to fall in love was one of the battles in their long fight for civil rights
in this country.
White America has had a long history
of trying to separate the races to preserve the purity of the “white race.”
Over the years, whenever it was perceived that white women were in danger of
being “despoiled” by men of other races, white gentlemen came to the rescue by
passing anti-miscegenation laws.
Before anti-miscegenation laws were
ruled unconstitutional in 1967, they were in effect in 38 states. If the letter
of the law was not enough to keep the races apart, midnight “necktie parties”
enforced the moral judgment of white society.
Maryland passed the first
anti-miscegenation law in 1661 aimed at preventing African Americans and Native
Americans from marrying white women. It did not, of course, prohibit white men
from exploiting non-white women.
Before
the Manongs
By 1765, Filipino Indios who had
escaped from Spanish servitude were finding their way to the bayous of Southern
Louisiana. Although most of these men were from the Visayan region of the
Philippines, collectively they were called “Manilamen.” Louisiana, under U.S.
rule after 1803, enacted laws barring marriages between African Americans,
Native Americans and Caucasians. Filipinos were considered “white” and were
free to court white women. Their children were mestizos (mixed blood). In the
early 1900s, a few “mail-order brides” arrived from the Philippines and married
these Filipino Cajuns.
Prof. Marina E. Espina has
documented the family of Felipe Madrigal, a sailor who served in the Atlantic
trade between Europe and the U.S. in 1850. He married Bridgett Nugent, an Irish
immigrant. They settled in New Orleans just before the start of the Civil War.
Over the next 145 years, that union created ten generations of Filipino
Americans of various cultural and racial backgrounds living throughout the U.S.
Pensionados, or government-sponsored
men and women students, arrived in the early 1900s to study U.S. history and
government as future colonial bureaucrats and teachers. Because pensionados
were perceived to be members of the ruling elite in the Philippines, the few
mixed marriages that occurred between Filipino men and white women were not a
major issue. Antonio Torres, George Washington University law school graduate
of 1905, returned to the Philippines with his American wife. He later organized
two companies of the national guard in 1906.
“It was not until 1967 that all anti-interracial marriage
laws in the United States were deemed unconstitutional.”
The Hawaiian Sugar Plantation
Association began recruiting workers from the Philippines in 1906 when mainland
agitation against the flood of “Oriental heathens” cut off their labor sources
in Asia. These men, called sakadas, came to work for three years and were
entitled to return tickets at the end of their stint. The majority of the
sakadas were bachelors, and few Filipino women came with them.
By 1920, Hawaii had become a
cultural and racial melting pot. Mixed marriages between the “pure white” stock
of residents was discouraged, but there was a large “mixed” population that the
sakadas could choose from for companionship and marriage. Successful sakadas
who chose not to return to the Philippines brought their families to Hawaii to
settle on the sugar plantations. Their children also entered the pool of
eligible marriage partners. Although few Filipino women married outside the
Filipino circle, some did.
A
Vision of America
The first manongs arrived in the
mainland to replace the Japanese and Chinese field workers in California around
1910. Unlike the sakadas in Hawaii, the manongs came as independent workers and
had to pay their own way to the U.S.
These young Filipino men had a
vision of an America where all men and women were equal under the law.
Opportunities to succeed were only limited by one’s own ambition. These were
the lessons taught in their classrooms by American teachers. They also had seen
white American men dating Filipinas in the Philippines, and they, too, looked
forward to dating American women in the U.S.
By working hard and saving their
money, they planned to return to their barrios to buy a piece of land, marry
their sweethearts and raise a family. But because they were forced to compete
against other ethnic labor groups, they often had to accept sub-standard wages.
It was enough to live on but not enough to buy their dreams of success at home.
Their dreams died hard.
The majority of the manongs were
bachelors. By the 1940s there were fewer then 3,000 Filipino families in the
U.S., and many of these were racially mixed families. In the towns and cities
across the U.S., and especially along the Pacific coast, where there were large
concentrations of Filipinos, there was always a shortage of Filipina women. The
bachelor manongs, however, found fulfillment elsewhere.
One of the most popular groups to
choose from were Japanese women, the daughters of Isei immigrant farmers. The
manongs must have impressed the Japanese women greatly to cause many of them to
reject the strong Japanese dislike of “Gai-jins” (foreigners). C. Sales wrote
in the January 29, 1934 issue of the Philippine Mail of a young
Romeo-and-Juliet couple. Silvestre, a Filipino, and Alice Taneka were engaged
to be married. When her family tried to force her to break off their
engagement, they committed double suicide.
In April 1942, Lt. Gen. John L.
Dewitt, Western defense commander, ordered the Japanese on the West Coast into
concentration camps. Miguel Ignacio, secretary of the Filipino Community of San
Francisco, called attention to several American-born Japanese women, citizens
of the United States, who had Filipino husbands. But as far as Dewitt was
concerned, the women and children would remain in the camps for the duration of
the war. Many of these Filipino husbands went on to serve in the 1st & 2nd
Filipino U.S. Infantry Regiments, defending the nation whose racist policies
held their families hostage.
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The attention lonely Filipino manongs lavished on white women, as in this beach scene in the ’30s, incensed many white men. (Source: "Letters in Exile" Asian Studies Center, 1976)
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Tensions
The few Filipinas of marrying age
were courted with fervor by the manongs. Many studies suggested a ratio of 14
males to 1 female. In reality the ratio of males to marriageable Filipinas was
closer to 40 to 1. One Rosita Dionisio was the toast of Stockton society in 1934
when she was crowned queen of the annual Dimas Alang convention. She received
proposals from hundreds of eligible bachelors and selected Jesus Tabasa, a
successful farm labor contractor from Watsonville, California to be her
husband.
Bachelors’ clubs sprang up
throughout California. Their dinner parties were an opportunity for the men to
show off their women. As long as the Filipinos focused their attention on other
Asian women or excluded groups, white society did not object.
As the manongs followed the crops
through the rich agricultural valleys of California, they became a perceived
threat to white America’s moral values and to the chastity of the latter’s
daughters. In October 1929 in Exeter, white youths objected to the attention
that Filipino men lavished on white girls. Heated words were exchanged, and
knives flashed. An angry mob chased the Filipinos out of town.
The Exeter incident was followed by
the Watsonville Riot in January 1930. The presence of white taxi-dance women at
the Filipino club house at Palm Beach incensed the whites in nearby
Watsonville. The police stood by as white thugs attacked the manongs and only
came to their rescue after Fermin Tobera, a young farm worker, was killed.
In the cities, taxi-dance halls
attracted the manongs. For ten cents a dance, a young man could hold a
beautiful woman in his arms for a few moments and forget the hardships of
America. The women were often first generation immigrants from Europe. In
Chicago, Filipinos fell in love and married Polish women, in Boston, Irish
women and in New York, Italians.
Court
Cases
In California, the local authorities
applied state anti-miscegenation laws on Filipinos. The original laws were
written to prevent the marriage of Caucasians and African Americans. In 1880,
Section 69 of the California Civil Code was amended to include Mongolians. In a
series of court cases, the manongs argued that they were not Mongolians but
Malaysians, and therefore the laws did not apply to them.
Henry Empeno documented the efforts
of Los Angeles County in the ’20s and ’30s to deprive Filipinos of their civil
rights through racist interpretations of the law. For example, Timothy S.
Yatko, Jr. was charged with the first-degree murder of a white man he had
caught in bed with his white wife. In order for his wife to testify against her
husband, their marriage had to be invalidated. The defense argued that the
state law did not specifically exclude Malaysians or Filipinos from marrying
whites, and that the marriage was valid. Judge Carlos S. Hardy, however, agreed
with the prosecution that “...the dominant race of the country has a perfect
right to exclude other races from equal rights with its own people...the
Filipino is a Malay and...the Malay is a Mongolian. Hence... intermarriage
between a Filipino and a Caucasian would be void.” Yatko was tried, found
guilty of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment at San Quentin
State Prison.
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Alejo Filomeno and Jessie Chaverria (with daughter Mary Ester) had to go to New Mexico to get married. (Source: Mary Ester Filomeno Collection, FAX-RP, San Francisco)
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The California Court of Appeals
ruling on Salvador Roldan v. Los Angeles, confirmed the classification of
Filipinos as Malaysians. Roldan was denied a license to marry Marjorie Rogers
by the L.A. county clerk. The L.A. county superior court ordered the clerk to
issue a license. L.A. county appealed the decision to the California Court of
Appeals. On January 27, 1933, the Court ruled that Filipinos were indeed
Malaysians and were not prohibited under the laws of 1880 to marry whites.
The victory was short-lived when on
August 21, 1933 Gov. James Rolph signed two bills into law that retroactively
invalidated all white marriages with non-whites. The law specifically mentioned
the Malay race for exclusion under section 69 of the anti-miscegenation law.
Honeymoon
Express
Filipinos who wanted to get married
traveled to states that did not have any racial barriers. When Alejo P.
Filomeno proposed to Jessie Chavarria, a Mexican woman from Texas, they had to
drive to Gallup, New Mexico to get married. This was a route of the “honeymoon
express” in 1943-1944, which members of the 1st & 2nd Filipino Infantry
Regiments had to take to marry their white sweethearts.
In 1948, the California Supreme
Court held that the state’s anti-miscegenation laws were unconstitutional and
said that “restricting marriage solely on the basis of race violated the equal
protection clause under the U.S. Constitution.”
It was not until 1967 that all
anti-interracial marriage laws in the United States were deemed
unconstitutional. It came too late to spare Col. Leon Punsalan the
embarrassment of having to move the site of his daughter’s wedding to a white
American. Punsalan had commanded the 1st Battalion, 1st Filipino Infantry
Regiment in combat against Japanese forces in 1945 and was a U.S. citizen.
Because they were residents of Virginia which prohibited interracial marriages,
Col. Punsalan had to move the wedding to Washington, D.C.
It has been less than 28 years since
all barriers to interracial union were torn down in this country. For some
people, interracial dating or marriage is still objectionable, a crime that
cries out for a return to the old days. It’s easy to take for granted the right
to fall in love with a person of another race or culture; but as the recent
passage of Proposition 187 in California demonstrated, there are those who
would force us back into the courts to fight the old battles once again. When
you kiss your loved one on Valentine’s Day, remember the likes of Manong Alejo
and Auntie Jessie, and what they had to overcome to have each other.
Reprinted from Filipinas Magazine, February 1995.
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